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BIOLOGICAL
CONTROL IN TROPICAL &
SUBTROPICAL ORCHARDS (Contacts) Crops in this
category include coconut, oil palms, macadamia, avocado, banana, pineapple, citrus, coffee, cocoa, guavas and passion
fruit, almonds and olives. Principal pests are fruit flies, scale insects,
psyllids and fruit piercing and scavenger moths (Bennett et al. 1976). Many tropical
and subtropical crops are raised successfully in temperate climates of
California South Africa, Australia and the Mediterranean where winter
temperatures are moderate, and tropical pests that have moved with these
crops often do not pose as severe a threat as in their places of origin.
However, several species can become problematic at time, and some temperature
zone pests have moved over to tropical plants when the latter appear in their
territory. Citrus of all the tropical crops has been most successfully
adapted to temperate regions where the added stress of winter even stimulates
fruit production. Avocados because of the origins of several species at high
elevations in the Neotropics are also adapted to temperate climates. However,
the latter sustain comparably fewer pest species than citrus in such areas.
Almonds have sustained invasions of damaging proportions on a few occasions,
with notable pests being navel orangeworm and peach twig borer. The
references in this section stress work performed on crops in and for tropical
regions of the world below 24° Lat., while greater detail on tropical crops
in temperate regions may be found in the Case History, Coccidae and regional
sections especially. Please
see Navel
Orangeworm and Citrus Psyllid Citrus Psyllid for detailed example. REFERENCES: [Additional references may be found at MELVYL
Library ] Anonymous. 1971. A big bet on biological
control. Citrograph 56: 315-16, 327. Annecke, D. P. 1969. Recent
developments in biological and integrated control of citrus pests in South
Africa. Proc. 1st Int. Citrus Symp. Riverside, Calif. 2: 849-54. Annecke, D. P. & M. J. Mynhardt. 1972.
The species of the insidiosus group of Metaphycus Mercet in
South Africa with notes on some extralimital species (Hymenoptera:
Encyrtidae). Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 85: 227-74. Argov, Y. & Y. Rössler. 1988.
Introduction of berneficial insects into Israel for the control of insect
pests. Phytoparasitica 16: 303-15. Argyriou, L. C. 1963. Studies on the
morphology and biology of the black scale [Saissetia oleae
(Bernard)] in Greece. Ann. Inst. Phytopath. Benaki, N.S. 5: 353-77. Argyriou, L. C. 1974. Data on the
biological control of citrus scales in Greece. Bull. SROP 1974/3: 89-94. Argyriou, L. C. 1984. Present status
of parasite complex in olive groves in Greece, p. 177-78. In: R.
Vavalloro & A. Piavaux (eds.), C.E C. Programme on Integrated and
Biological Control. Final Report 1979/83. Comm. European Comm., Directorat,
Luxembourg. Argyriou, L. C. & P. DeBach.
1968. The establishment of Metaphycus helvolus (Compere)
(Hymenoptera: Encytidae) on Saissetia oleae (Bern.) (Homoptera:
Coccidae) in olive groves in Greece. Entomophaga 13:
223-28. Awibowo, R. 1934. Der Klapperbladkever, Brontispa froggatti
var. celebensis, ein zijn biologische bestrijding op Celebes
(Voorloopige mededeeling). Landbouw. Buitenz. 10: 76-92. Baranowski, R. M. & R. W. Swanson. 1971. The utilization of Parachasma cereum
(Hymenoptera: Braconidae) as a means of suppression Anastrepha suspensa
(Diptera: Tephritidae) populations. Proc. Tall Timbers Conf. Ecol. Anim.
Contr. Habitat Managem. 3: 249-52. Bartlett, B. R. 1960. Biological races
of the black scale, Saissetia oleae, and their specific
parasites. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 53: 383-85. Bartlett, B. R. 1963. The contact toxicity of some pesticide residues to
hymenopterous parasites and coccinellid predators. J. Econ. Ent. 56: 694-98. Bartlett, B. R. 1969. The biological control campaigns against soft scales and
mealybugs on citrus in California. Proc. 1st Int. Citrus Symp., Riverside,
Calif. 2: 875-78. Bartlett, B. R. 1978. Coccidae. In: C. P. Clausen (ed.), Introduced Parasites
and Predators of Arthropod Pests and Weeds. U. S. Dept. Agric. Agric. Handbk.
No. 480, Washington, D.C. 545 p. Bartlett, B. R. & C. F. Lagace. 1961. A new biological race of Microterys flavus
introduced into California for the control of lecaniine coccids, with an
analysis of its behavior in host selection. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer.
54: 222-27. Bartlett, B. R. & D. C. Lloyd. 1958. Mealybugs attacking citrus in California-- a
survey of their natural enemies and the release of new parasites and
predators. J. Econ. Ent. 51: 90-3. Bartlett, B. R. & R. A. Medved.
1966. The biology and effectiveness of Diversinervus elegans
(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), an imported parasite of lecaniine scale insects in
California. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 59: 974-76. Bartlett, K. A. 1939. Introduction and colonization of two parasites of the
pineapple mealybug. Univ. Puerto Rico J. Agr. 23: 67-72. Bartlett, K. A. 1941. The introduction and colonization in Puerto Rico of beneficial
insects parasitic on West Indian fruit flies. Univ. Puerto Rico
J. Agr. 25: 25-31. Barzman, M. S., K. M. Daane & L.
E. Caltagirone. 1990. Distribution of progeny in Metaphycus zebratus,
a parasitoid of black scale. 74th Ann. Meet., Pacific Br. Ent. Soc. Amer., Spokane, WA. Beardsley, J. W., Jr. 1969. The
Anagyrina of the Hawaiian Islands (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) with descriptions
of two new species. Proc. Hawaii. Ent. Soc. 20: 287-310. Bedford, E. C. G. 1968. The biological control of red scale, Aonidiella aurantii
(Mask.), on citrus in South Africa. J. Ent. Soc. S. Afr. 31: 1-15. Bedford, E. C. G. 1973. Citrus scale insects biological control proves successful.
Citrus SubTrop. Fruit J., Feb., 1973. p. 5-17. Bedford, E. C. G. & E. D. Thomas.
1965. Biological control of the citrus blackfly, Aleurocanthus woglumi
(Ashby) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) in South Africa. J. Ent. Soc. S. Afr. 28:
117-32. Bedford, G. O. 1971. Virus release programme in Fiji. Report of the Project Manager
for the Period June 1970 - May 1971, p. 234-39. [UNDP(SF)/SPC project for
research on the control of the coconut palm rhinoceros beetle.] South Pacific
Comm., Noumea, New Caledonia. Beingolea, G. O. 1956. Estatus actual de la plaga de la quereza negra
del olivo (Saissetia oleae Bern.) en los valles de Yauca e Ilo.
Bol. Trimest. Extp. Agropecuarias (1955) 4: 18-22. Beingolea, G. O. 1969. Biological
control of citrus pests in Peru. 1st Int. Citrus Symp. Riverside, Calif. 2:
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insecticides used for control of California red scale (Homoptera: Diaspididae)
to four beneficial species in a citrus agroecosystem. J. Econ. Ent. 81: 892-98. Benassy, C. 1969. The biological
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1st Int. Citrus Symp. Riverside, Calif. 2: 793-99. Bennett, F. D. 1971. Some recent successes in the field of biological control in
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1959. Biological control of insect pests in Bermuda. Bull. Ent. Res. 50:
423-36. Bennett, F. D., D. Rosen, P.
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and its parasites in sprayed and unsprayed coffee in Kenya. Bull. Ent. Res.
55: 59-82. Blumberg, D. & E. Swirski. 1982.
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(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), introduced into Israel for the control of the
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